Archaeological evidence of the exodus

After the original creation and the resurrection, the exodus and the miracles surrounding it are the greatest miracles God performed. Indeed, before the incarnation of Jesus, God regularly identified himself as the God who brought the Israelites out of Egypt (Ex. 20:2; 29:46; Ps. 81:10; Jer. 11:4).

This article is based on an article by Duane Caldwell.

It’s been said that if the exodus really happened we’d see more signs of it in archaeology. We don’t, so it’s not believable. This assumes the following.
1. We don’t see signs of the exodus from archaeology.
2. We can only believe in the exodus if we see signs of it from archaeology.
3. Since we don’t see signs from archaeology, we can’t believe it happened.

Item 2 says that one can only believe the exodus is true if archaeology says one can, because archaeologists found signs of it.  This is fallacious thinking because it employs the equivalent fallacy of scientism – applied to archaeology. Scientism “is the view that the hard sciences – like chemistry, biology, physics, astronomy – provide the only genuine knowledge of reality. At the very least, this scientific knowledge is vastly superior to what we can know from any other discipline.”

The premise is:
1. You can only know something is true if science—in this case archaeology—says it is true. The obvious question, then is:
2. Can archaeology prove the above statement is true? The answer is no. Therefore:
3. Conclusion: Premise (1) is incorrect and it is not true that the only way to know truth is through archaeology.

Scientism is self-contradictory and can’t meet its own standards of verification. Scientism fails for archaeology, so it is not true that the only means to determine if the exodus is true is through archaeology. There are other means of learning truth.

But as it turns out there is, in fact, archaeological evidence for the exodus, but I started with the error of scientism to emphasize the point that archaeological evidence is not the only evidence and should not be the most persuasive evidence. Let’s continue by looking at the testimonial evidence for the exodus and then we’ll return to the archaeological evidence.

Testimonies of the exodus

There are many people, including notable ones, who testify to the veracity of the exodus by confirming the results of the exodus. One of the most notable, well-known results of the exodus is the Ten Commandments. When were the Ten Commandments given? Right after the exodus from Egypt, after Moses had led the children of Israel to mount Sinai, and God descended from heaven and gave Moses the tablets (Ex. 19:1 – 20:19). Thus, the existence of the Ten Commandments is tied to the truth of the exodus. Who acknowledged and believed the Ten Commandments? Well, for starters:

Jesus and the rich ruler’s question

Jesus was asked “Good teacher, what must I do to inherit eternal life?” by “a certain ruler”, as Luke puts it (Lk. 18:18-24NIV), whom Jesus describes as rich (v.24). Jesus, after making a point on who is good (God alone), goes on to quote the commandments from the ten that are directed toward humans. The ruler not only knew what Jesus was talking about, but claimed he had kept them. This shows the Ten Commandments were common knowledge, and were expected to be kept. The fact that they were understood to be required for “eternal life” shows it was understood they were divine commandments. When did God give these divine commandments? During the exodus. The rich ruler knew that, as did the rest of the Jewish nation at that time.

Pesach, Sukkot and the entire nation of Israel

God required the entire nation of Israel to observe the Passover (Pesach) and The Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot) every year (Dt. 16:16). The Passover is a remembrance of the events immediately proceeding the exodus, and Sukkot is a remembrance of the events immediately following the exodus from Egypt, when they journeyed through deserts and dwelt in sukkahs or tabernacles or tents. So the festivals themselves are a remembrance of the exodus practiced by the entire nation of Israel. When did God give this commandment? When He gave Moses the Torah (the five books of Moses, the first five books of the bible) most prominently in Deuteronomy. What is the book of Deuteronomy? The collection of messages Moses gave to the Israelites after the exodus before they were to enter the promised land. (Dt. 1:1-3)

So everything about these two Jewish remembrances is centered around the exodus: what they depict, when they were given, and how they are celebrated. This was all in remembrance of how God rescued Israel from Egypt by the exodus. There is no point to either of the festivals or what is done during them if there was no exodus to form the basis. Just as there would be no point to Christmas if Jesus was never incarnated as a baby in Bethlehem, there is no point to Pesach and Sukkot if there was never an exodus.

The gods of Egypt

The writers of Exodus knew about Egyptian theology. Before the tenth plague God told Moses, “I will bring judgment on all the gods of Egypt” (Ex. 12:12; Num. 33:4). The plagues were not random catastrophes. They were judgment on all the gods of Egypt (Turek, 2025).

1. Water to blood (Ex. 7:14-24).
   Khnum – protector of the Nile.
2. Frogs (Ex. 7:25 – 8:15).
   Heqet – frog-headed goddess of childbirth and fertility.
3. Gnats/lice (Ex. 8:16-19).
   Geb – God of the earth/land.
4. Flies (Ex. 8:20-32).
   Khepri – beetle-headed god of creation and resurrection.
5. Livestock (Ex. 9:1-7).
   Hathor – sky-goddess depicted as a woman, a cow, or a cow-headed woman.
6. Boils (Ex. 9:8-12)
   Isis – goddess of medicine and magic.
7. Hail (Ex. 9:19-35).
   Nut – sky-goddess often depicted as the canopy of heaven.
8. Locusts (Ex. 10:1-20).
   Osiris – god of fertility, harvest, and vegetation.
9. Darkness (Ex. 10:21-29).
   Ra – the sun god.
10. Death of the firstborn (Ex. 11:1-10; 12:29-32).
    Anubis – god of the dead.

Moses knew about Egyptian culture because he lived in Egypt. This is consistent with the biblical record.

The archaeological evidence

Some will say, the above evidence is unacceptable because it’s from the Bible, and they don’t accept the Bible. That is, of course, a genetic fallacy and is typically undergirded in their minds by the fallacy of scientism as discussed above. Nevertheless, since archaeological evidence is what is desired, and is available, let’s take a look.

Identifying evidence of the exodus

When looking to find something, you must look in the place where the object exists in order to find it. Looking where it’s not will not produce the results you want! If you misplace your keys in your house, but you’re looking for them outside your house, you won’t find them. Such is the problem with looking for evidence of the exodus. You must look for it in the right place. Specifically, you must look for it during the correct time period that it occurred. The problem with the conventional, Bible-doubting scholars is they have looked in the wrong place—meaning the wrong era —for evidence of the exodus. Most people are familiar with Cecil B. DeMille’s movie “The Ten Commandments“, or Dreamworks “The Prince of Egypt”, both of which include a depiction of the exodus. The pharaoh of the exodus depicted in both movies follows the thinking of the incorrect secular scholarship: supposing that Rameses II is the pharaoh of the exodus because he is mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 47:11; Ex. 1:11). This incorrect identification of the Pharaoh has led them to the incorrect identification of the date of the exodus.

The date of the exodus

Simcha Jacobovici and Timothy Mahoney, both researchers into the exodus who have produced documentaries on the exodus, The Exodus Decoded and Patterns of Evidence – Exodus respectively, have both come to the conclusion that the standard date of the exodus —called the late date, which is in the 13th century BC—is incorrect (Jacobovici, 2006; Mahoney, 2015).

Multiple lines of evidence show that the correct date of the exodus is 1446 BC (Caldwell, 2018a; Appendix A). This is called the early date, which is at least 156 years (1446 minus 1290) older than the late date.

And multiple lines of evidence show pharaoh Merneferre Ay was the pharaoh of the exodus (Appendix C and D). This calibration of a known biblical event with a known Egyptian event shows that 228 years need to be removed from the traditional Egyptian dates to correct them in this era. The need remove time from the traditional Egyptian chronology has been known for many years (Ashton and Down, 2006).

The chronology of ancient Egypt is a highly debated topic. Many see no evidence of the exodus because they need to look at least 380 years earlier in the traditional chronology (228 plus 156 years). They are looking in the wrong era!

Now, some of the archaeological evidences.

1. The Brooklyn papyrus

Papyrus Brooklyn (35.1446) is an Egyptian document written in hieratic script that names 95 household servants of a noblewoman named Senebtisi. Forty of the names are Semitic (Hebrew is a Semitic language), and several have been identified as Hebrew names (Windle, 2022). These include “Menahema,” a feminine form of the Hebrew name “Menahem” (2 Ki. 15:14), a woman whose name is a parallel to Issachar, one of Jacob’s sons (Gen. 30:18), and also parallel to Shiphrah, the name of one of the Hebrew midwives prior to the exodus (Ex. 1:15). This papyrus is dated 1743-1809 BC (traditional chronology). When this is corrected by removing 228 years (Caldwell 2018b), the date becomes about 1515-1581 BC, which is about 100 years before the date of the exodus (1446 BC).

This list shows Hebrew people living in Egypt prior to the exodus, and it is an essential piece of evidence in the argument for an historical exodus.

2. The Ipuwer papyrus

“The admonitions of an Egyptian sage”, housed at a museum in Leiden, Netherlands and attributed to an Egyptian scribe named Ipuwer, describes a series of plagues and catastrophes that befell Egypt that have an uncanny likeness to the plagues and catastrophes God used to convince Pharaoh, King of Egypt, to let the Israelites go. The manuscript is thought to be from the13^th century BC, with the original autograph earlier. Habermehl believes that this poem was written after the exodus, but its traditional Egyptian dating is 350-750 years older (Habermehl, 2018). Maarten Raven dated it to about 1625-1650 BC (traditional chronology). When this is corrected by removing 228 years (Caldwell 2018b), the date becomes about 1397-1422 BC, which is soon after the date of the exodus (1446 BC).

Some of the similarities between the Ipuwer Papyrus and the biblical plagues of Moses in exodus are given below – the quote and reference from the papyrus is followed by the biblical reference (Lane, 2021).

1. “There’s blood everywhere…Lo the River is blood.” (2:5-6, 2:10) (Ex. 7:20-21)
2. “One thirsts for water.” (2:10) (Ex. 7:24)
3. “Lo, trees are felled, branches stripped.” (4:14, 6:16) (Ex. 9:24-25)
4. “Lo, grain is lacking on all sides.” (6:3) (Ex. 9:31)
5. “Birds find neither fruits nor herbs.” (6:1) (Ex. 10:15)
6. “Groaning is throughout the land, mingled with laments.” (3:14) (Ex. 12:30)
7. “Lo, many dead are buried in the river, the stream is the grave, the tomb became a stream, and he who puts his brother in the ground is everywhere.” (2:13) (Num. 33:4)
8. “All is ruin!” (3:13) (Ex. 10:7)
9. “The land is without light.” (9:11) (Ex. 10:22-23)
10. “Gold and lapis lazuli, silver and malachite, carnelian and bronze . . . are fastened on the neck of female slaves.” (3:2-3:3) (Ex. 12:35-36)

3. The Berlin pedestal relief

The Berlin pedestal relief is an inscription describing Egypt’s war victories over three nations – Ashkelon, Canaan and Israel. It is difficult to date as it was not discovered in situ. Based on the style of the text (the names “Ashkelon” and “Canaan” largely were written consonantally), it has been dated at about 1450 BC (traditional chronology). Correcting the chronology by subtracting 228 years (Caldwell, 2018b), gives 1222 BC, which was during the Israelite judges. This confirms that Israel existed as a nation near Canaan at this time. It is probably the earliest inscription mentioning “Israel”.

4. The Soleb inscription

At the end of the 15th century BC (traditional chronology), the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep III built a temple to honor the god Amun-Ra at Soleb in Nubia (modern-day northern Sudan). He left a list of the territories he claimed to have conquered on a series of columns in the temple (Windle, 2022). Each territory is depicted by a relief of a prisoner with his hands tied behind his back over an oval “name ring” identifying the land of the conquered foe. One of the enemies is from the “the land of the Shasu [nomads] of Yahweh (the God of Israel)”. Given the other name rings nearby, the context would place this land in the Canaanite region. In addition, the prisoner is clearly portrayed as Semitic, rather than African-looking, as other prisoners in the list are portrayed. Correcting the chronology by subtracting 228 years (Caldwell, 2018b), gives 1170 BC, which was during the Israelite judges. This confirms that Israel existed as a nation at this time.

5. The Louve leather roll

A leather scroll in the Louvre that dates to the time of Rameses II mentions forty stablemasters (junior officers) who each had a (monthly?) quota of 2000 bricks to be made by the men under them (Windle, 2022). It is dated at about 1274 BC (traditional chronology). When this is corrected by removing 228 years (Caldwell 2018b), the date becomes about 1046 BC, which is about 400 years after the date of the exodus (1446 BC). Having a quota is similar to the Hebrews who were required to produce a quota of bricks each day (Ex. 5:5-21).

6. The Merneptah stele

The Merneptah Stele is traditionally dated to approximately 1210 BC and states that the nation of Israel was destroyed by Pharaoh Merneptah. It says,

“Canaan has been plundered into every sort of woe:
Ashkelon has been overcome;
Gezer has been captured;
Yanoam is made nonexistent.
Israel is laid waste and his seed is not.”

Correcting the chronology by subtracting 228 years (Caldwell, 2018b), gives 982 BC, which was in the reign of king David. This confirms that Israel existed as a nation at this time. It also marks it as a piece of propaganda since Israel was not destroyed during the reign of David.

Landmarks of the exodus

The route of the exodus took them past many landmarks. A good number of the landmarks have now been identified. The video below identifies a number of them. Highlighted below are some of them with time references to quickly find them in the video.

Mount Sinai (Ex. 34:2) @2:35
Where Moses and the Israelites met with God and Moses received the Ten Commandments.

Site of the Red Sea crossing (Ex. 14:21-22)
Neweiba Beach (@7:10)
Where God parted the waters when Moses struck the sea.

The rock struck at Horeb that gave water (Ex. 17:6) @15:10
The rock at Horeb is of particular interest because its unique shape seems to bear witness that it has been struck and split.

While crossing the desert, the Israelites camped at a place where there was no water and the people were thirsty. At Rephidim, at the rock at Horeb, God told Moses to strike the rock and He would make water come out of the rock for the people to drink. While not mentioned in the Biblical text, the first century historian Josephus records that when Moses struck the rock, the rock split. Josephus recorded:

“while Moses only smiting the rock with his rod, opened a passage, and out of it burst water, and that in great abundance, and very clear.”
Antiquities of the Jews, Book 3, Chapter 1:7

So the split in the rock seems to testify to it being struck.

Various locations have been proposed for Mt. Sinai and the Red Sea crossing. Scriptural clues are not definitive and people who hold to biblical authority come to differing conclusions on these matters. The main point is that the route and landmarks described in the bible for the exodus journey are consistent with the geography of the area.

Mahoney’s summary of evidences

To round out these evidences, I leave you with a summary of the evidences that Tim Mahoney presented in his Patterns of Evidence.

Conclusion

Returning to the original three challenges above:

1. We don’t see signs of the exodus from archaeology.
   Response: Many evidences of the exodus are presented above.
2. We can only believe in the exodus if we see signs of it from archaeology.
   Response: I’ve demonstrated that: a) this is fallacious thinking and b) it is not applicable because there is plenty of evidence of the exodus.
3. Since we don’t see signs from archaeology, we can’t believe it happened.
   Response: This is not applicable since I’ve presented many evidences of the exodus. Rather, you should believe the words of Jesus (Jn. 3:14) that provide the context for one of the most famous verses in the Bible: Jn. 3:16

14 Just as Moses lifted up the snake in the desert, so the Son of Man must be lifted up,
15 that everyone who believes in Him may have eternal life.
16 “For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life. (CSB)

The “snake in the desert” (Num. 21:5-9) is a reference to the incident after the exodus where the Israelites complained against God and Moses. Their salvation from the judgment God sent—venomous snakes—was a bronze snake lifted on a pole. The Israelites were to look at the lifted snake and believe in order to be healed of the venom. Today, as Jesus said, you now look to Him, Jesus, who was lifted on the cross, and believe in Him. Back then, those who looked at the snake in the wilderness were granted a reprieve. They didn’t die immediately, but they did die later. Today, those who look to Jesus and believe are granted eternal life now. Such have “crossed over from death to life” (Jn. 5:24) as soon as they believe. Thus, one of the most beloved and shared verse in the Bible that encapsulates the gospel in one verse (Jn. 3:16)  is given in the context of one of the greatest set of miracles God performed: the miracles of the exodus.

Appendix A: Date of the exodus

The Bible says, “In the four hundred and eightieth year after the Israelites came out of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Israel, in the month of Ziv, the second month, he began to build the temple of the Lord” (1 Ki. 6:1). Solomon reigned 970-930 BC and the Jewish temple was built in 966-959 BC (NIV Study Bible). Therefore, the exodus was in about 1446 BC (966 plus 480).

Further corroboration of the 1446 BC date of the exodus comes during the time of the judges, who ruled Israel from 1406 BC to 1050 BC. Jephthah, who ruled as a judge, speaking through messengers to the king of the Ammonites, said that Israel had already been in the land for 300 years – “For three hundred years Israel occupied Heshbon, Aroer, the surrounding settlements and all the towns along the Arnon. Why didn’t you retake them during that time?” (Jud. 11:26). This means that Jephthah made this statement in 1106 BC, which is well within the time of the judges. But if the exodus was in 1290 BC, the statement must have been made around 950 BC, which is during the reign of Solomon, and before him David ruled for 40 years. (2 Sam. 5:4). So the proposed later date of the exodus is not consistent with this Scripture.

Why have some proposed that the exodus was in about 1290 BC (or 1270 BC)? The word “Rameses” occurs five times in the Bible (Gen. 47:11; Ex. 1:11: 12:37; Num. 33:3, 5). Those who hold to the “late” date of the exodus assume it occurred during the reign of the Rameses, who is typically identified as Ramses II who reigned over Egypt in the 13th century BC. Archaeologists believe that the city Ramses was built in the 13^th century BC. Before this time the name of the area was Avaris. But other interpretations are also possible. For example, “Ramses” could be a later geographical update of the biblical text replacing an archaic place-name with one that was more recognizable. This is called an intentional anachronism (see Appendix B). If Avaris was mentioned instead of Rameses – the primary evidence for the late date of the exodus would disappear.

Appendix B: Editorial updates in the Pentateuch

Here are some examples of a current name being added to the text of the Bible to help explain an ancient name.

Gen. 14:2, 8 “the king of Bela (that is, Zoar)”. This means that “Zoar” in Genesis 13:10 is probably an editorial update from “Bela”.

Gen. 23:2 “Sarah died in Kiriath-arba (that is, Hebron)”.

Gen. 35:19 “Ephrath (that is, Bethlehem)”.

During the occupation of Cannan, the tribe of Dan destroyed the city of Laish (or Leshem) and rebuilt it and renamed it “Dan” (Josh. 19:47; Judges 18). This means that “Dan” in Genesis 14:14 and Deuteronomy 34:1, are probably editorial updates from Laish (or Leshem).

Appendix C: The Pharaoh of the exodus

Many pharaohs have been nominated as the pharaoh of the exodus. Obviously, all these suggestions cannot be right! Timelines alone are insufficient to identify the pharaoh since the Egyptian ones are highly disputed. That’s why we need to rely on “patterns of evidence” to identify the pharaoh, rather than chronology alone.

Caldwell 2018b used the following pattern of evidence to identify the pharaoh of the exodus.
– A Pharaoh reigning during the collapse of Egyptian society.
– This pharaoh reigned before Ahmose I (before the Hyksos invasion).
– The Pharaoh who raised Moses died before Moses confronted the Pharaoh of the exodus (Ex 2:23).
– Moses was 40 when he was driven out of Egypt (Acts 7:23-30) and 80 when he confronted Pharaoh (Ex 7:7).
– Unexpected deaths of first born males should be recorded at the time of the exodus during the reign of the pharaoh of the exodus due to the plague on the first born (Ex 11:5).
– The Hyksos would have overrun Egypt shortly after the reign of the pharaoh of the exodus since Egypt was defenseless after the exodus. So there should be accounts of growing problems with the Hyksos following the pharaoh of the exodus.

He concluded that pharaoh Merneferre Ay was the pharaoh of the exodus. Merneferre Ay was the last pharaoh of the 13^th dynasty. This is in agreement with the person who Josephus, the first century Jewish Historian, identified as the pharaoh of the exodus (Caldwell 2018b) – Merneferre Ay is named by the Egyptian historian Manetho who lived in the 3rd century BC and translated the word “Ay” into Greek.

If the exodus happened in the final year of Ay’s reign (which is 1674 BC by traditional Egyptian dates), at the time of the exodus, the gap between traditional Egyptian chronology and the actual date was about 228 years (1674-1446). This means that 228 years need to be removed from the traditional Egyptian dates to correct them. Caldwell claims that the reason that most scholars and Egyptologists missed the exodus and the proper identification of the pharaoh of the exodus is because instead of following the “patterns of evidence”, they followed traditional Egyptian dating. It is a chronology problem – they looked in the wrong time period. In fact, they need to look at least 380 years earlier in the traditional chronology (228 plus 156 years).

Cavalcanti (2024) used a similar approach to Caldwell and suggested that Sobekhotep IV (13th dynasty), or Menerferre Ay (late 13th dynasty) or Dedumose/Tetumose II (16th dynasty) were the pharaoh of the exodus.

Osgood (2024) used a similar approach to Caldwell and suggested that Sobekhotep IV may have been the pharaoh of the exodus who was followed by the Hyskos king Khyan. He also quoted that the Hyskos may have been Amalekites.

Lacey (2025) also proposed a late Thirteenth Dynasty exodus, with Merneferre Ay (also called Aya) as the exodus Pharaoh. He noted that:
– The collapse of Egyptian society appears to have happened towards the end of the Thirteenth Dynasty not at its beginning.
– Specialists have dated the Ipuwer Papyrus near the end of the Thirteenth Dynasty.
– The destruction of Jericho, Hazor, and many other conquest sites near the end of the Middle Bronze Age can be dated by scarab evidence found in the last burials at Jericho to the late Thirteenth Dynasty era.

Habermehl also used a “pattern of evidence” approach and selected pharaoh Amenemhat IV near the end of the 12^th dynasty (Habermehl, 2013; Habermehl, 2018). This meant that her correction of traditional Egyptian chronology was at least 750 years for dates older than 1446 BC and at least 350 years for younger dates.

Caldwell (personal communication) claims that “the patterns of evidence better fit Merneferre Ay than Amenemhat IV for the pharaoh of the exodus, particularly the collapse of Egyptian society after the plagues which allows the overrun of Egypt by the Hyksos”.

Contrary to the above, Bates (2020) of Creation Ministries International rejects these findings. Instead, he thinks that the Hyksos invaded Egypt before the exodus and the Egyptian society didn’t collapse after the exodus. He says that the nation of Israel is mentioned in Egypt from about the mid-18th dynasty forward (c. 1450 BC, traditional Egyptian dates). This is after they had most likely departed Egypt, so it might also give us an indication that the Exodus occurred just prior to that time.

Appendix D: The pharaoh of the exodus according to Chat GPT

Question: Who was the pharaoh of the exodus?

The identity of the pharaoh of the exodus is one of the longest-running debates in both biblical studies and Egyptology. The Bible does not name the pharaoh, so scholars and theologians have proposed several candidates based on chronology, archaeology, and textual interpretation.

Here’s a summary of the main views (all dates are traditional Egyptian chronology):

1. The Traditional (13th-century BC) View — Pharaoh Ramses II

Theory: The Exodus happened around c. 1270–1250 BC, during the reign of Ramses II (1279–1213 BC).

Basis:

• Exodus 1:11 mentions the Israelites building the store cities of Pithom and Raamses, which seem to refer to Pi-Ramesses, Ramses II’s capital in the Nile Delta.
• Many scholars align this with the “late date” of the Exodus (13th century BC).

Objections:

• Egyptian records from Ramses’ time do not mention a mass slave escape or a major disaster.
• Archaeological layers in Canaan show Israelite settlement earlier than this according to some interpretations.

2. The Early (15th-century BC) View — Pharaoh Thutmose III or Amenhotep II

Theory: The Exodus occurred around 1446 BC, based on 1 Kings 6:1, which says Solomon began building the Temple 480 years after the Exodus (and Solomon’s reign began c. 970 BC).

Candidates: Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC) — would fit as the Pharaoh of the oppression, with his successor Amenhotep II (1427–1401 BC) as Pharaoh of the Exodus.

Basis:

• Fits with a literal reading of the biblical chronology.
• Some evidence of instability or loss of slave labor under Amenhotep II’s reign.

Objections: The mention of the city “Raamses” seems anachronistic for this period (though some argue it’s a later editorial update).

3. Alternative or Revisionist Theories

A few less common proposals:

• Dudimose (Tutimaeus) — mentioned by the historian Manetho, who wrote that during his reign “a blast of God” drove foreigners from Egypt. [But according to Caldwell 2018b this is incorrect – Manetho did a translation, not a transliteration]. Some fringe theories link him to the Exodus, but this is not widely accepted.
• Merneferre Ay (13th Dynasty, c. 1700 BC) — proposed by some independent researchers who place the Exodus earlier, before the Hyksos period.
• Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV, c. 1350 BC) — occasionally mentioned because of his monotheistic reforms, though the link is speculative.

Question: But did Egyptian society collapse after any of these pharaohs?

Excellent question — and a very insightful one.
If the Exodus really occurred as described (with plagues, the death of the firstborn, loss of labor, and the destruction of Egypt’s army), one would expect Egypt to have suffered a major societal collapse or at least a period of national weakness soon afterward.

Let’s look at what happened after each candidate pharaoh:

1. Ramses II (reigned c. 1279–1213 BC) – Traditional View

Aftermath:

• Egypt did not collapse after Ramses II.
• His successor, Merneptah, continued ruling strongly (c. 1213–1203 BC) and even boasted of military victories.
• In fact, the Merneptah Stele (c. 1208 BC) contains the earliest known reference to “Israel” as a people already living in Canaan — which contradicts the idea that Israel was only just escaping Egypt at that time.

Conclusion: Egypt remained stable and powerful — no evidence of collapse.

2. Amenhotep II (reigned c. 1427–1401 BC) – Early Biblical Chronology

Aftermath:

• Egypt also did not collapse after Amenhotep II.
• His son, Thutmose IV, reigned successfully and commissioned the famous “Dream Stele” at the Sphinx.
• There is some minor evidence of reduced foreign campaigns under Amenhotep II, which some have interpreted as a loss of manpower — but this is not close to a societal collapse.

Conclusion: Egypt remained a major power — only possible signs of instability, not collapse.

3. Merneferre Ay (13th Dynasty, c. 1700 BC) – Alternative Theory

Aftermath:

• This period did experience a collapse — the end of the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period.
• Egypt fragmented, the central government fell apart, and the Hyksos (foreign rulers) eventually took control of the Delta.
• Archaeology shows famine, depopulation, and political chaos during this time.

Conclusion: This is one of the few periods that actually fits the description of a nation brought to its knees — a real societal breakdown consistent with what one might expect after the Exodus.

4. Dudimose (Tutimaeus, possibly late 13th Dynasty) – Another Collapse Period

Aftermath: [But according to Caldwell 2018b this is incorrect – Manetho did a translation, not a transliteration].

• Manetho (an Egyptian historian writing in Greek) said that during Tutimaeus’ reign, “a blast of God smote us,” and “foreigners without number invaded Egypt.”
• This description fits the same collapse that led to the Hyksos domination.
• Some older Jewish and Christian writers (like Josephus) connected this account with the Exodus.

Conclusion: Egyptian society did collapse around this time — consistent with Exodus-style disasters.

Overall conclusion

If you’re looking for a period that matches the biblical description of Egypt’s devastation, the collapse around the end of the 13th Dynasty (c. 1700 BC) fits best — far better than the reigns of Ramses II or Amenhotep II, where Egypt remained strong.

Question: Please disregard Egyptian chronology. When did Egyptian society collapse?

Good — that’s a very clear and fair way to frame it. If we set aside the conventional Egyptian chronology (which is full of uncertainties, overlaps, and later adjustments) and instead just ask when Egypt actually experienced collapses, archaeologists identify several distinct periods of national breakdown in Egyptian history.

Here are the major collapses — the times when Egyptian society really fell apart:

1. First Intermediate Period — Collapse of the Old Kingdom

Roughly: After the age of the pyramids (around the end of the 6th Dynasty).

What happened:

• The central government collapsed.
• The Nile failed to flood properly, leading to famine and depopulation.
• Egypt split into small local kingdoms run by warlords and nomarchs.

Evidence:

• Texts like the Ipuwer Papyrus (which speaks of chaos, death, and the Nile turned to blood).
• Abandoned pyramid projects, mass graves, and climate data suggesting severe drought.

Recovery: The country was reunited under Mentuhotep II, beginning the Middle Kingdom.

✅ True societal collapse: Yes — total breakdown of centralized authority, famine, and social chaos.

2. Second Intermediate Period — Collapse of the Middle Kingdom

Roughly: After the 13th Dynasty.

What happened:

• The royal court disappeared from records.
• Egypt split between Thebes in the south and the Hyksos (foreign rulers) in the Delta.
• Archaeological evidence shows abandoned cities, reduced population, and foreign infiltration.

Descriptions: Later Egyptian writers called this period humiliating — Egypt was “ruled by foreigners.”

Recovery: Reunified under Ahmose I, founder of the New Kingdom.

✅ True societal collapse: Yes — widespread political and cultural breakdown.

3. Third Intermediate Period — Collapse of the New Kingdom

Roughly: After the 20th Dynasty (end of the Ramesside era).

What happened:

• Egypt fragmented again between priests of Amun in Thebes and kings in the Delta.
• Foreign invasions (Libyans, Nubians) and economic decline.
• Royal tombs looted; monumental building largely stopped.

Recovery: Eventually partial revival under Libyan and Kushite rulers, but never full restoration.

✅ True societal collapse: Yes — loss of unity, foreign rule, major decline.

4. Late Period and Final Collapse

Roughly: After the Persian and Greek conquests.

What happened:

• Egypt fell permanently under foreign powers — Persia, then Alexander the Great, then Rome.
• Native Egyptian kings never regained control.

✅ True societal collapse: Yes — the end of Egypt as an independent civilization.

If you’re asking which collapse best matches the Exodus story

The Second Intermediate Period fits best:

• Egypt devastated, politically shattered, and overrun by foreigners (Hyksos).
• Ancient writers like Manetho describe divine judgment and invasion.
• This fits the idea of Egypt’s army destroyed and its power suddenly broken.

References

Ashton J and Down D, 2006, Unwrapping the Pharaohs; How Egyptian Archaeology Confirms the Biblical Timeline, Master Books.
Bates G, 2020, Egyptian chronology confusion. Why are there so many differences of opinion?
Caldwell D, 2018a, Do Ancient Chronologies Challenge the Bible? Part 1: The Date of the Exodus.
Caldwell D, 2018b, Do Ancient Chronologies Challenge the Bible? Part 2: Egyptian Chronology & the Pharaoh of the Exodus.
Caldwell D, 2025, The Exodus – Does archaeology show it happened?
Cavalcanti P G, 2024, Biblical exodus: A conflict between the 13th and 14th Dynasty (Book 3 of 7).
Habermehl A, 2013, Revising the Egyptian chronology: Joseph as Imhotep, and Amenemhat IV as pharaoh of the Exodus.
Habermehl A, 2018, The Ipuwer Papyrus and the Exodus.
Jacobovici S, 2006, Is There Scientific Proof Of The Bible’s Plagues | The Exodus Decoded.
Lacey T, 2025, The Hyksos – Does the bible shed light on who they were?, Answers Research Journal 18: 97–124.
Lane M, 2021, The Ipuwer papyrus, Evidence 4 Faith.
Mahoney T, 2015, Patterns of Evidence.
Mauro R, 2018, Finding the Mountain of Moses: The Real Mount Sinai in Saudi Arabia.
Osgood A J M, 2024, The XIIIth dynasty of Egypt and the exodus, Answers Research J, 621-635.
Turek F, 2025, 9 Discoveries That Support the Biblical Exodus In Egypt, Cross Examined.
Windle B, 2022, Top ten discoveries related to Moses and the exodus.

Acknowledgement

This article is based on an article by Duane Caldwell.

Posted, October 2025

Also see: Is the Torah fact or fiction?